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Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust

 
Anonymous Coward
07/04/2005 05:21 AM
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Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust
[link to www.creationscience.com]

The Origin of Comets

ABSTRACT: The many explanations for how comets began have serious problems. After a review of some facts concerning comets, a new explanation for comet origins will be proposed and tested. It appears that the “fountains of the great deep” and the power of high-pressure water exploding into the vacuum of space launched comets throughout the solar system as the flood began. Other known forces would have assembled the expelled rocks and muddy droplets into larger bodies resembling comets in size, number, density, composition, spin, texture, strength, chemistry (organic and inorganic), and orbital characteristics. After comparing theories with evidence, problems with standard explanations will become apparent.




Figure 118: Arizona’s Meteor Crater. Comets are not meteors. Comets are like giant, dirty, exceedingly fluffy “snowballs.” Meteors are rocks and rock fragments; most are dust particles. “Falling stars” streaking through the sky at night are usually dust particles thrown off by comets years ago. In fact, every day we walk on comet dust. House-size meteors have formed huge craters on Earth, the Moon, and elsewhere. Meteors that strike the ground are renamed “meteorites,” so the above crater, 3/4 of a mile in diameter, should be called a “meteorite” crater.

On the morning of 14 December 1807, a huge fireball flashed across the southwestern Connecticut sky. Two Yale professors quickly recovered 330 pounds of meteorites, one weighing 200 pounds. When President Thomas Jefferson heard their report, he allegedly said, “It is easier to believe that two Yankee professors would lie than that stones would fall from heaven.” Jefferson was mistaken, but his intuition was no worse than ours would have been in his time. Today, many would say, “The Moon’s craters show that it must be billions of years old” and “What goes up must come down.” Are these simply mistakes common in our time?

As you read this chapter, test such intuitive ideas and alternate explanations against evidence and physical laws. Consider the explosive and sustained power of the “fountains of the great deep.” You may also surmise why the Moon is peppered with craters, as if someone had fired large buckshot at it. Question: Are comets “out of this world”?


Comets may be the most dynamic, spectacular, variable, and mysterious bodies in the solar system. They contain even organic matter which many early scientists concluded was “decomposed organic bodies.”1 Today, a popular belief is that comets brought life to Earth. Instead, comets may have traces of life from Earth.2

Comets orbit the Sun. When closest to the Sun, some comets travel more than 350 miles per second. Others, at their farthest point from the Sun, spend years moving more slowly than a person can walk. A few comets travel so fast they will escape the solar system. Even fast comets, because of their great distance from Earth, appear to “hang” in the night sky, almost as stationary as the stars. Comets reflect sunlight and fluoresce (glow). They are brightest near the Sun and sometimes visible in daylight.

A typical comet, when far from the Sun, resembles a dirty, misshapen snowball, a few miles across. About 85% of its mass3 is frozen water—but this ice is extremely light and fluffy, with much empty space between ice particles. The rest is dust and various chemicals. As a comet approaches the Sun, a small fraction of the snowball (or nucleus) evaporates, forming a gas and dust cloud, called a coma, around the nucleus. The cloud and nucleus together are called the head. The head’s volume can be larger than a million Earths. Comet tails are sometimes more than an astronomical unit (AU) in length (93,000,000 miles), the Earth-Sun distance. One tail was 3.8 AU long—enough to stretch around Earth 15,000 times.4 Solar wind pushes comet tails away from the Sun, so comets traveling away from the Sun move tail first.




Figure 119: Nucleus of Halley’s Comet. When this most famous of all comets last swung by the Sun in 1986, five spacecraft approached it. Giotto, a European Space Agency spacecraft, took six pictures of Halley’s black, 9 x 5 x 5 mile, potato-shaped nucleus from a distance of a few hundred miles. This first composite picture of a comet’s nucleus showed 12–15 jets venting gas at up to 30 tons per second. (Venting and tail formation occur only when a comet is near the Sun.) The gas moved away from the nucleus at almost a mile per second to become part of the comet’s head and tail. Seconds after these detailed pictures were taken, Giotto slammed into the gas, destroying the spacecraft’s cameras.


Comet tails are extremely tenuous—giant globs of practically nothing. Stars are sometimes observed through comet heads and tails, and comet shadows on Earth, even when expected, have never been seen. One hundred cubic miles of comet Halley’s tail contains much less matter than in a cubic inch of air we breathe—and is even less dense than the best laboratory vacuum. So far, no comet’s mass has been large enough to measure accurately.5

In 1998, a spacecraft orbiting the Moon detected billions of tons of water ice mixed with the soil in deep craters near the Moon’s poles. As one writer visualized it,

Comets raining from the sky left pockets of frozen water at the north and south poles of the moon, billions of tons more than previously believed, Los Alamos National Laboratory researchers have found.6

Comets are a likely source, but this raises perplexing questions. Ice should evaporate from almost everywhere on the Moon faster than comets currently deposit it, so why does so much ice remain?7 Also, ice seems to have been discovered in permanently shadowed craters on Mercury,8 the closest planet to the Sun. Ice that near the Sun is even more difficult to explain.

Fear of comets as omens of death has existed in most ancient cultures.9 Indeed, comets were called “disasters,” which in Greek means “evil” (dis) “star” (aster). Why fear comets and not other equally unpredictable and more surprising celestial events, such as eclipses, supernovas, or meteor showers? When Halley’s comet appeared in 1910, some people worldwide panicked; a few even committed suicide. In Texas, police arrested men selling “comet-protection” pills. Rioters then freed the salesmen. Elsewhere, people quit jobs or locked themselves in their homes as the comet approached.

Comets are rapidly disappearing. Some of their mass is “burned off” each time they pass near the Sun, and they frequently collide with planets, moons, and the Sun. Comets passing near large planets often receive gravity boosts that fling them, like a slingshot, out of the solar system forever. Because we have seen so many comets die, we naturally wonder, “How were they born?”

Textbooks and the media confidently explain how comets began. Although comet experts worldwide know those explanations are riddled with scientific problems, most experts accept the standard explanations and view the problems, which few others appreciate, as “future research projects.”

To learn the probable origin of comets, we must:

a. Understand these problems. (This will require learning how gravity moves things in space, often in surprising ways.)

b. Learn a few technical terms related to comets, their orbits, and their composition.

c. Understand and test the seven major theories for comet origins.

Only then will we be equipped to decide which theory best explains the origin of comets.

Comet Composition
Until a spacecraft lands on a comet’s nucleus and returns samples to Earth for analysis, much will remain unknown about comets. However, light from a comet can identify some of the gas and dust in its head and tail.

Light Analysis. Each type of molecule, or portion thereof, absorbs and gives off specific colors of light. The color combination, seen when this light passes through a prism or other instrument to form its spectrum, identifies some components in the comet. Even light frequencies humans cannot see can be analyzed in the tiniest detail. Some components, like sodium, are easy to identify but others, such as chlorine, are difficult, because the light they emit is dim or masked by other radiations. Curved tails in comets have the same light characteristics as the Sun, and therefore are reflecting sunlight. In space, only solid particles reflect sunlight, so we know that these curved tails are primarily dust. Also detected in comets are water, carbon dioxide, argon,34 and many combinations of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Probably, some molecules in comets, such as water and carbon dioxide, have broken apart and recombined to produce many other compounds. Comets contain methane and ethane. On Earth, bacteria produce almost all methane, and ethane comes from methane. How could comets originating in space get these compounds?35

Mars’ atmosphere also contains small amounts of methane. Because solar radiation should destroy that methane within a few hundred years, something within Mars must be producing methane. (Martian volcanoes are not, because Mars has no active or recent volcanoes. Nor do comets today deliver methane fast enough to replace what solar radiation is destroying.)36 Could this mean that bacterial life is in Martian soil?37 Probably. Later in this chapter, a surprising explanation will be given.

Dust particles in comets vary in size from pebbles to specks smaller than the eye can detect. How dust could ever form in space is a recognized mystery.38 Light analysis shows that the atoms in comet dust are arranged in simple, repetitive, crystalline patterns, primarily that of olivine,39 the most common of the 2,000 known minerals on Earth. In fact, the particular type of olivine, which is rich in magnesium, is especially abundant in rocks beneath oceans and continental crust. In contrast, dust between stars (interstellar dust) has no repetitive atomic patterns; it is not crystalline, and certainly not olivine.

Crystalline patterns form because atoms and ions tend to arrange themselves in patterns that minimize their total energy. An atom, whose temperature and pressure allow it to move about, will eventually find a “comfortable” slot next to other atoms, that minimizes its energy. (This is similar to marbles rolling around on a table filled with little pits. A marble is most “comfortable” when it settles into one of the pits. The lower the marble settles, the lower its energy, and the more permanent its position.) Minerals in rocks, such as in the mantle or deep in Earth’s crust, have been under enough pressure to develop a crystalline pattern.40

What is “interstellar dust”? Is it dust? Is it interstellar? While some of its light characteristics match dust, Hoyle and Wickramasinghe have shown that those characteristics have a much better match with dried, frozen bacteria and cellulose—an amazing match.41

Dust, cellulose, and bacteria may be in space, but each raises questions. If it is dust, how did dust form in space? “Cosmic abundances of magnesium and silicon [major constituents of dust] seem inadequate to give interstellar dust.”42 A standard explanation is that exploding stars (supernovas) produced dust. However, radiated energy from a supernova, which exceeds that of 10 billion suns, would vaporize everything nearby, even dust. If it is cellulose, the most abundant organic substance on Earth, how could such a large, complex molecule form?43 Vegetation is one-third cellulose; wood is one-half cellulose. Finally, bacteria are so complex it is absurd to think they formed in space. How could they eat, keep from freezing, or avoid ultraviolet radiation for very long?

Is all “interstellar dust” interstellar? Probably not. Starlight traveling to Earth passes through regions of space that absorb specific wavelengths of light. The regions giving the cellulose and bacteria signatures may lie within or surround the solar system. Some astronomers mistakenly assume that because much absorption occurs in interstellar space, little occurs in the solar system.

Heavy Hydrogen. A water molecule (H2O) has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. A hydrogen atom contains only one proton in its nucleus, but about one out of 6,400 hydrogen nuclei in our oceans also has a neutron, making it twice as heavy as normal hydrogen. It is called heavy hydrogen, or deuterium.

Surprisingly, in comets, one out of 3,200 hydrogen atoms is heavy—twice the richness, or concentration, as that in water on Earth.44 Comets have 20–100 times the concentration of heavy hydrogen as interstellar space and the solar system as a whole.45 Evidently, comets came from an isolated reservoir. Efforts by comet experts to deal with this problem are simply unscientific guesswork. No known naturally occurring process will greatly increase or decrease the heavy hydrogen concentration in comets.

Details Relating to the Hydroplate Theory
1. Formation Mechanism, Ice on Moon and Mercury. About 85% of a comet’s mass is frozen water. Therefore, to understand comet origins, one must ask, “Where is water found?” Earth, sometimes called “the water planet,” must head the list. The volume of water on Earth is ten times greater than the volume of all land above sea level. Other planets, moons, and even interstellar space70 have only traces of water, or possible water. These traces, instead of producing comets, may have been caused by comets or water vapor that the “fountains of the great deep” launched into space.

How could so many comets have recently hit the Moon, and probably the planet Mercury, that ice remains today? Ice on the Moon, and certainly on hot Mercury, should disappear faster than comets deposit it today. However, if 50,000 comets were ejected recently from Earth and an “ocean” of water vapor was injected into the inner solar system, the problem disappears. Comet impacts on Mars probably created brief saltwater flows, carving the famous “erosion” channels.


PREDICTION 20: Soil in “erosion” channels on Mars will contain traces of soluble compounds, such as salt from Earth’s preflood subterranean chambers. Soil far from “erosion” channels will not. (This prediction was first published in April 2001. Salt was discovered on Mars in March 2004.71)


To form comets in space, should we start with water as a solid, liquid, or gas?

Gas. In space, gases (such as water vapor) will expand into the vacuum if not gravitationally bound to some large body. Gases by themselves would not contract to form a comet. Besides, the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation breaks water vapor into hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and the hydroxyl radical (OH). Comets would not form from gases.

Solid. Comets might form by combining smaller ice particles, including ice condensed as frost on microscopic dust grains that somehow formed. However, one icy dust grain could not capture another unless their speeds and directions were nearly identical and one of the particles had a rapidly expanding sphere of influence or a gaseous envelope. Because ice molecules are loosely bound to each other, collisions among them would fragment, scatter, and vaporize them—not merge them. Also, only about 30% of the material that condenses on interstellar dust would be water ice72—far short of the 85% figure cited above.

Liquid. Large rocks and muddy water were expelled by the “fountains of the great deep.” The water would partially evaporate, leave most dirt behind, rapidly radiate its heat to cold outer space, and freeze. (Outer space has an effective temperature of nearly absolute zero, -460°F.) The dirt crust encasing the ice would prevent complete evaporation. (Recall that the nucleus of Halley’s comet was black, and a comet’s tail contains dust particles.) High-velocity water escaping from the subterranean chamber would erode dirt particles of various sizes. Water vapor would concentrate around each rock and ice particle escaping from Earth. These “clouds” and the expanding spheres of influence, especially of larger rocks, would result in captures of other nearby particles moving at similar velocities. Comets would quickly form.73

Other reasons exist for concluding that water in a gas or solid state cannot form comets.74 Water from the “fountains of the great deep” meets all requirements.

2. Crystalline Dust. Sediments eroded by high-velocity water escaping from the subterranean chamber would be crystalline, most of it magnesium-rich olivine.

3. First Returns of Many Comets. Because the same event launched all comets from Earth, those we see falling from the farthest distance (near-parabolic comets) are falling back for the first time. Other comets, launched with slightly more velocity, will soon be detected.


PREDICTION 21: The number of near-parabolic comets passing perihelion each decade will be found to be diminishing slightly. This effect will be seen as better telescopes, more searchers, and higher quality data allow adjustments to be made for our increasing ability to see comets.



PREDICTION 22: Some large, near-parabolic comets, as they fall toward the center of the solar system for the first time, will reveal moons acquired as the comets formed. Tidal effects may strip such moons from their comets as they pass the Sun. (A moon may have been found orbiting incoming comet Hale-Bopp.)75


If the comets represented by the red bar in Figure 125 on page 207 are falling in from distances of 50,000 AU, their orbital periods are about 4 million years. How then could they have been launched from anywhere in the solar system if the flood began only 5,000 years ago?

The distance (50,000 AU) may be in error. Comets more than 12 AU from the Sun cannot be seen, so the distance they have fallen and the time required must be calculated. Both calculations are extremely sensitive to the mass of the solar system. If this mass has been underestimated by as little as 16 parts in 10,000 (about the mass of Jupiter), the true distance would be 600 AU and the period only 5,000 years.76

Where might that mass be hiding? Probably not in the planetary region. The masses of the Sun, planets, and some moons are well known, because masses in space can be accurately measured if something orbits them and the orbit is closely observed.77 However, if the equivalent of Jupiter’s mass is thinly spread within 40–600 AU from the Sun (beyond Pluto’s orbit), only objects outside 40 AU would be gravitationally affected. (Recall the hollow sphere analogy on page 204.) That mass would considerably shorten the periods of near-parabolic comets, because they spend 99.9% of their time at least 40 AU from the Sun.

Comet Ikeya-Zhang travels about 100 AU from the Sun and last returned to the inner solar system in March 2002. It is the one periodically observed comet that ventures most deeply into this region, 40–600 AU from the Sun. Its previous return was in January 1661, 341.13 years earlier. However, its orbital period, based on the accepted mass of the solar system, should have be 366.95 years. The simplest explanation for this 25.82-year discrepancy is that slightly more mass exists in the 40–600 AU region.

Comet Herschel-Rigollet, which ventures 57 AU from the Sun, has the second longest period. It last returned in August 1939, 11.5 years ahead of schedule based on the traditional mass of the solar system. It too seems to have encountered extra mass beyond 40 AU.78

What if two comet sightings, about a century apart, were of comets which we assumed had such long periods that they should not be the same comet, but whose orbits were so similar they probably were the same comet? We might suspect that both sightings were of the same comet, and it encountered a slight amount of extra mass beyond 40 AU that pulled it back much sooner than expected. Twelve “strange pairs” are known, suggesting that extra, unseen mass beyond Pluto’s orbit affects long-period comets but is not felt within the planetary region. These “strange pairs” are explained in Figure 126 and Table 15.

This “missing” mass could be composed of particles as small as gas molecules up to asteroid-size objects 100 miles wide. They would be difficult to detect with our best telescopes. However, with recent technical advances, dozens of large, asteroid-size objects are being discovered each year beyond Neptune’s orbit. They are called transneptunian objects. So far, 700 have been discovered. Of course, no one knows their total number or mass.

Much is unknown about the distant region 40–600 AU from the Sun. For example, spacecraft launched from Earth many years ago are now entering that region’s inner fringes. These spacecraft are experiencing a slight, but additional, gravity-like acceleration toward the Sun. So far, efforts to explain this acceleration have failed. While its magnitude is too small to give near-parabolic comets 5,000-year periods, the effect is strengthening as the spacecraft begin to penetrate this region.80

Detecting the Hidden Mass That Comets Feel


Figure 126: An Orbit’s Fingerprint. A comet’s orbit closely approximates an ellipse. Each ellipse and its orientation in space are specified by five numbers, two of which are shown above. The first, i, is the angle of inclination—the angle the plane of the ellipse makes with Earth’s orbital plane. A second number, q, measures in astronomical units (AU) the distance from the Sun to the perihelion. The other three numbers (e, w, and W) need not be defined here but are explained in most books on orbital mechanics or astronautics.

In the last 900 years, almost 1,000 different comets have been observed accurately enough to calculate these five numbers. Surprisingly, 12 pairs of comets have very similar numbers. Could some “strange pairs” really be the same comet on a subsequent orbit? The estimated period (the far right column in Table 15), the time to complete one orbit, for each member of the “strange pair” is so extremely long they should not be the same comet. However, the chance of any two random comets having such similar orbits is about one out of a 100,000.79 The chance of getting at least 12 “strange pairs” from the vast number of possible pairings is about one out of 7,000. If the solar system’s mass has been slightly underestimated, those estimated orbital periods would be much less. If so, some “strange pairs” are the same comet, and the estimated period (far right column) is wrong. Other reasons are given in this chapter for believing that a slight amount of extra mass exists in the solar system. It should be approximately the mass of Jupiter but spread thinly outside the planetary region—where long-period comets spend most of their time.

Each pair of rows in Table 15 describes two sightings of comets with remarkably similar orbits. The far left column tells when, to the nearest tenth of a year, the comet passed perihelion. The next five columns specify the comet’s orbit. The bottom two pair may be the same comet seen in 1097, 1538, and 1947. [Endnote 79 tells how Table 15 was developed.]




Table 15. Twelve “Strange Pairs”
Comet
(year)
i(°)
q(AU)
e
w(°)
W(°)
Period
(year)

1877.7
102.2274
1.575904
1.000000
143.2049
252.710
infinite

1994.8
101.7379
1.845402
0.999517
142.7849
249.943
236,165

1846.4
122.3771
1.375992
1.000000
78.7517
163.464
infinite

1973.4
121.5982
1.382019
0.998723
74.8598
164.817
35,603

1439.4
81.0000
0.120000
1.000000
140.0000
192.000
infinite

1840.3
79.8512
0.748504
1.000000
138.0440
188.271
infinite

1785.1
70.2380
1.143400
1.000000
205.632
267.214
infinite

1898.6
70.0300
0.626438
1.000000
205.613
260.528
infinite

1863.0
137.541
0.803238
1.000000
230.576
357.695
infinite

1978.7
138.264
0.431870
1.000000
240.450
358.419
infinite

1304.1
65.0000
0.840000
1.000000
25.0000
88.7000
infinite

1935.2
65.4251
0.811148
0.991304
18.3969
92.4472
901

1770.9
148.555
0.528240
1.000000
260.375
111.944
infinite

1980.0
148.6018
0.545164
0.987598
257.5849
103.2190
291

1580.9
64.6120
0.602370
1.000000
89.3670
24.9480
infinite

1890.5
63.3509
0.764087
1.000000
85.6608
15.8347
infinite

1337.5
143.6000
0.749000
1.000000
79.6100
97.6100
infinite

1968.6
143.2384
1.160434
1.000665
88.7151
106.7471
infinite

1742.1
112.9480
0.765770
1.000000
328.0430
189.2010
infinite

1907.2
110.0572
0.923861
1.000000
328.7561
190.4170
infinite

1097.7
41.0000
0.300000
1.000000
298.0000
352.0000
infinite

1538.0
42.4600
0.147700
1.000000
287.7000
356.2000
infinite

1097.7
41.0000
0.300000
1.000000
298.000
352.000
infinite

1947.4
39.3015
0.559799
0.997427
303.7545
353.909
3,209




PREDICTION 23: The equivalent of Jupiter’s mass is thinly distributed 40–600 AU from the Sun.



PREDICTION 24: Because the solar system should be slightly “heavier” than previously thought, some strange comet pairs listed in Table 15 are a single comet on successive orbital passes. More “strange pairs” will be found each decade. Probably the comet sightings of 1785 and 1898 were of the same comet. [See Table 15.] If so, it will return in about 2012.


4. Random Perihelion Directions. Comets were launched in almost all directions, because the generally north-south rupture encircled the rotating Earth.

5. Orbit Directions and Inclinations, Two Separate Populations. A ball tossed in any direction from a high-speed train will, to an observer on the ground, initially travel almost horizontally and in the train’s direction. Likewise, low-velocity comets launched in any direction from Earth received most of their orbital velocity from Earth’s high, prograde velocity (18.6 miles per second) about the Sun. Earth, by definition, has zero angle of inclination. This is why almost all short-period comets, those launched with low velocity, are prograde and have low angles of inclination.

Comets launched with greater velocities than Earth’s orbital velocity traveled in all directions. Most are long-period comets with randomly inclined orbital planes. Prograde comets launched with the highest velocities escaped the solar system, because they had the added velocity of Earth’s motion. This is why so many of the remaining comets are retrograde. [See Table 12 on page 206.]

While this explains how two populations formed, one must ask if comets could be launched from Earth with enough velocity to blast through the atmosphere, escape Earth’s gravity, and enter large, even retrograde, orbits.

To escape Earth’s gravity and enter only a circular orbit around the Sun requires a launch velocity of 7 miles per second. However, to produce near-parabolic, retrograde orbits requires a launch velocity of 45 miles per second! Earth’s atmosphere would offer little resistance at such speeds. In seconds, the jetting fountains would push the thin atmosphere aside, much as water from a fireman’s hose quickly penetrates a thin wall.

Water pressurized by the static weight of 10 miles of rock would launch comets from Earth’s surface at only 0.5 mile per second. However, two hard-to-quantify effects, water hammers and gas generation, greatly multiplied this velocity.

Water Hammers. During the early days of the subterranean chamber’s collapse, giant water hammers would create enormous pressures. Today, water hammers occur, often with a loud bang, when fluid flowing in a pipe is suddenly stopped (or even slowed) by a closing (or narrowing) valve—a device, like a faucet, that controls the flow. A water hammer is similar to a long train that collides with an immovable object. The faster and more massive the train (or volume of water), the greater the compression (or pressure jump throughout the pipe). A water hammer concentrates energy, just as a hammer striking a nail concentrates energy. A moving hammer can produce forces many times greater than a resting hammer.

The subterranean chamber acted as the pipe. What was the valve? Once the water began to escape upward through any crack, a chain reaction would begin. The escaping flow from the chamber would start collapsing pillars (explained in Figure 52), beginning with those nearest the crack. Adjacent pillars, suddenly carrying additional loads, would also collapse like a house of cards. The crust would vibrate (flutter) in complex, wavelike patterns, like a horizontal flag suddenly placed in the wind. Each narrowing of the chamber’s thickness would, in effect, partially close a valve, slow trillions of tons of water, and create a water hammer. Peak pressures could easily have been twice the chamber’s preflood pressures.

Forces familiar to us will not compress water much. However, the static weight of 10 miles of rock resting on the subterranean water would compress it about 17%. [See page 351.] Water, compressed by the vibrating crust, would act as trillions of springs. Those “springs” and the massive fluttering crust would have vibrational periods of about a minute. In other words, vibrations closed “valves” which created water hammers which created more vibrations, etc. Many have heard water pipes banging or have seen pipes burst because only a few cubic feet of water were slowed. Imagine the excruciating pressures from rapidly slowing a “moving underground ocean.”81



What Is Flutter?
It may be difficult to imagine a fluttering hydroplate almost 10 miles thick. However, each plate’s large area (similar to the area of a large continent) would have given it an area-to-thickness ratio of several million to one! To appreciate the relative thinness of the crust, visualize a square sheet of tin, steel, or rock, 10 feet on each side, but only as thin as a sheet of paper.

Flutter occurs when a fluid flows over a solid surface, such as the wing of an airplane or a flat plate, and initiates a vibration. If (a) a fluid flows along a wing or plate and continuously “thumps” or pushes a deflected wing or plate back toward its neutral position, and (b) the “thumping” frequency approaches any natural frequency of the wing or plate, large, potentially damaging, oscillations can occur. This is called flutter.

Water beneath the crust would have allowed the crust to vibrate. Flowing water below the vibrating crust would have produced water hammers that would have “thumped” the crust at each of its natural frequencies. Undulations in the crust would have rippled throughout the crust, producing other water hammers and undulations.


Gas Generation. As high pressures in the subterranean chamber launched liquid water above the atmosphere, more and more liquid exploded into large volumes of gas (water vapor and other dissolved gases) in the vacuum of space. The effect was similar to a burning propellant generating gas behind a bullet, accelerating it down a long gun barrel. This effect alone could easily multiply velocities by a factor of 100.

Regrettably, we can only estimate the magnitude of this effect. If an entire drop of liquid were converted to water vapor at typical atmospheric pressures and temperatures, its volume would expand by a factor of about 1,600. This much additional expansion behind a “bullet” would multiply its velocity hundreds of times. However, the liquid cools as molecules evaporate. When the agitated liquid eventually freezes, evaporation essentially stops. If the liquid water’s temperature were only 32°F and its internal heat generated vapor at an absolute pressure of 1 pound per square inch until the water froze at 32°F, its volume would expand 6,000 times! Much of this expansion would occur within the walls of the rupture. The remainder would expand with less acceleration but in all directions well above Earth’s atmosphere.82

The first stage of a two-stage rocket might lift the second stage above most of the atmosphere. Then the second stage, using a different propellant, achieves the maximum velocity. Likewise, high water pressure in the subterranean chamber acted as the first stage, boosting liquid water above the dense atmosphere. There the “second stage” kicked in with the explosive evaporation of liquid into the vacuum of space. Global water hammers and gas generation could launch comets with the needed velocities—from around the Earth, in several-minute cycles, over many days, and with indescribable power.




Figure 127: Adoption into Jupiter’s Family of Comets. If comets were launched from somewhere in the inner solar system, many, such as A and B, will have aphelions within several astronomical units (AU) of Jupiter’s orbit. Comets spend much of their time near aphelion, where they move very slowly. There they often receive gentle gravitational pulls (green arrows) of long duration, toward Jupiter’s orbit.

Comet C’s aphelion is far beyond the outermost planet. (At this figure’s scale, it would be 1/5 mile from where you are sitting.) Comet C steadily gains speed as it falls toward the inner solar system for thousands of years, crossing Jupiter’s orbit at tremendous speed. To slow it down enough to join Jupiter’s family would require such powerful forces that the comet would be torn apart, as shown in Figure 121 on page 205. Half the time, a close encounter with Jupiter would speed the comet up and probably throw it out of the solar system. Could many smaller gravitational encounters pull C into Jupiter’s family? Yes, but close encounters are rare, and each encounter could eject the comet from the solar system. Once in Jupiter’s family, the average comet has a life expectancy of only 12,000 years.26

Clearly, comets must have originated recently from the inner solar system (the home of the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) to join Jupiter’s family. Such comets could not have come from outside Jupiter’s orbit.


6. Jupiter’s Family. A bullet, when fired straight up, slows to almost zero velocity near the top of its trajectory—its farthest point from Earth. A comet also moves very slowly near its aphelion, its farthest point from the Sun. If a comet’s aphelion is ever near Jupiter during any orbit, Jupiter’s large gravity will pull the nearly stationary comet steadily toward Jupiter. Because a comet spends a relatively long time near its farthest point, Jupiter’s gravity acts for an equally long time, gently pulling the nearly stationary comet toward Jupiter’s orbit. Even a comet’s orbital plane is slowly but steadily aligned with Jupiter’s. Thus, aphelions of short-period comets tend to be pulled toward Jupiter’s nearly circular orbit, regardless of whether the aphelion is inside, outside, above, or below that circle. The closer a comet’s aphelion is to Jupiter’s orbit, the faster and more likely that comet is drawn toward Jupiter’s orbit.

One can think of Jupiter’s mass as spread out in a hoop that coincides with Jupiter’s orbit. (This “hoop analogy” simplifies many long-term gravitational effects.) Comets feel more pull toward the nearest part of the hoop.

My statistical examination of all historical sightings of every orbit (almost 500) of every comet in Jupiter’s family confirms this effect. The hydroplate theory places the source of comets at Earth—well inside Jupiter’s orbit. Therefore, many comets reach their slowest speeds within several astronomical units of Jupiter’s hoop. Thousands of years of gentle gravitational tugs by this hoop have gathered Jupiter’s family. Although Jupiter sometimes destroys comets or ejects them from the solar system, many comets in its family remain, because they were recently launched. A similar but weaker effect is forming Saturn’s family. [See Figure 123.]

7. Composition, Heavy Hydrogen. Comet chemistry was determined by the content of the subterranean water and what the jetting water carried up. Trace amounts of organic compounds, including methane and ethane, are found in comets, because this water contained pulverized vegetation from preflood forests, and bacteria and other traces of life within hundreds of miles of the globe-encircling rupture. Comets are rich in heavy hydrogen, because water in the subterranean chambers never mixed with other water in the solar system. Our oceans have half the concentration of heavy hydrogen as is in comets. So, if the subterranean chambers held half the water in today’s oceans (as assumed on page 107), then almost all heavy hydrogen came from the subterranean chambers.


PREDICTION 25: Excess heavy hydrogen will be found in salty water pockets five or more miles below the Earth’s surface.



PREDICTION 26: Spacecraft landing on a comet will find that comets, and therefore bodies bombarded by comets, such as Mars, contain loess (see page 179), traces of vegetation and bacteria, and about twice the salt concentration of our oceans.


8. Small Comets. Muddy droplets launched with the slowest velocities could not move far from Earth. So their smaller spheres of influence produced small comets. The orbits of small comets about the Sun tend to intersect Earth’s orbit more in early November than mid-January. Because small comets have been falling on Earth for only about 5,000 years, little of our oceans’ water came from them—or from any comets. Few small comets can reach Mars.

9. Recent Meteor Streams, Crater Ages. Disintegrating comets produce meteor streams. If meteor streams were older than 10,000 years, like-sized particles would have similar orbits. [See “Poynting-Robertson Effect” on page 36.] Because this is not seen, meteor streams and comets must be younger than 10,000 years. Only the hydroplate theory claims comets began recently. Impact craters on Earth are also young.

10. Other/Enough Water. Did the subterranean chamber have enough water to supply all the comets the solar system ever had?

Consider these facts. First, the oceans contain 1.43 x 109 cubic kilometers of water. Also, Marsden and Williams’ Catalogue of Cometary Orbits (1996 edition) lists 124 periodic comets—comets observed on at least two different passages into the inner solar system. (Halley’s comet, for example, has been observed on 30 consecutive orbits dating back to 239 B.C.) In recorded history, 790 other comets have been observed with enough detail to calculate orbits. So we know of 914 comets. (Small comets, while numerous, have only about 1% of the mass of all comets combined, so will not be considered here.)

Some comets escaped from the solar system—either directly at launch, or later when perturbed by a planet’s gravity. Other comets have never been counted, because they never came close enough to Earth in modern times to be seen, or because they collided with the Sun or a planet. So, let’s presume 50,000 comets were launched.

The average radius of a comet nucleus is probably about 2.5 kilometers. Comet densities are about 0.2 gram per cubic centimeter,83 similar to a loaf of bread. About 85% of a comet’s mass is water. Finally, let’s assume the subterranean chamber contained half of the water now in the oceans. If these estimates are correct, less than one-thousandth of the subterranean water was expelled as comets.

With such a small fraction of the available water required, comets could have easily come from Earth.

11. Other/Death and Disaster. Comets, launched at the onset of the flood, are being steadily removed from the solar system. During the centuries after the flood, comets would have been seen much more frequently than today. Some must have collided with Earth, just as Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided with Jupiter in 1994. People living during those centuries would have seen many comets grow in size and brightness in the night sky over several weeks. Some of those unforgettable sights would have been followed by impacts on Earth, daytime skies darkened with water vapor dumped by comets, and dramatic stories of localized destruction. Perhaps, the founders of different cultures learned from their ancestors that comets were first observed immediately after the flood, so comets became firmly associated with death and disaster—thus the word disaster: dis (evil) + aster (star).
Krystal
12/08/2005 10:12 AM
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Re: Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust
Thanks so much for this info.
Anonymous Coward
12/08/2005 10:12 AM
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Re: Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust
cont...

The first stage of a two-stage rocket might lift the second stage above most of the atmosphere. Then the second stage, using a different propellant, achieves the maximum velocity. Likewise, high water pressure in the subterranean chamber acted as the first stage, boosting liquid water above the dense atmosphere. There the “second stage” kicked in with the explosive evaporation of liquid into the vacuum of space. Global water hammers and gas generation could launch comets with the needed velocities—from around the Earth, in several-minute cycles, over many days, and with indescribable power.




Figure 127: Adoption into Jupiter’s Family of Comets. If comets were launched from somewhere in the inner solar system, many, such as A and B, will have aphelions within several astronomical units (AU) of Jupiter’s orbit. Comets spend much of their time near aphelion, where they move very slowly. There they often receive gentle gravitational pulls (green arrows) of long duration, toward Jupiter’s orbit.

Comet C’s aphelion is far beyond the outermost planet. (At this figure’s scale, it would be 1/5 mile from where you are sitting.) Comet C steadily gains speed as it falls toward the inner solar system for thousands of years, crossing Jupiter’s orbit at tremendous speed. To slow it down enough to join Jupiter’s family would require such powerful forces that the comet would be torn apart, as shown in Figure 121 on page 205. Half the time, a close encounter with Jupiter would speed the comet up and probably throw it out of the solar system. Could many smaller gravitational encounters pull C into Jupiter’s family? Yes, but close encounters are rare, and each encounter could eject the comet from the solar system. Once in Jupiter’s family, the average comet has a life expectancy of only 12,000 years.26

Clearly, comets must have originated recently from the inner solar system (the home of the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) to join Jupiter’s family. Such comets could not have come from outside Jupiter’s orbit.


6. Jupiter’s Family. A bullet, when fired straight up, slows to almost zero velocity near the top of its trajectory—its farthest point from Earth. A comet also moves very slowly near its aphelion, its farthest point from the Sun. If a comet’s aphelion is ever near Jupiter during any orbit, Jupiter’s large gravity will pull the nearly stationary comet steadily toward Jupiter. Because a comet spends a relatively long time near its farthest point, Jupiter’s gravity acts for an equally long time, gently pulling the nearly stationary comet toward Jupiter’s orbit. Even a comet’s orbital plane is slowly but steadily aligned with Jupiter’s. Thus, aphelions of short-period comets tend to be pulled toward Jupiter’s nearly circular orbit, regardless of whether the aphelion is inside, outside, above, or below that circle. The closer a comet’s aphelion is to Jupiter’s orbit, the faster and more likely that comet is drawn toward Jupiter’s orbit.

One can think of Jupiter’s mass as spread out in a hoop that coincides with Jupiter’s orbit. (This “hoop analogy” simplifies many long-term gravitational effects.) Comets feel more pull toward the nearest part of the hoop.

My statistical examination of all historical sightings of every orbit (almost 500) of every comet in Jupiter’s family confirms this effect. The hydroplate theory places the source of comets at Earth—well inside Jupiter’s orbit. Therefore, many comets reach their slowest speeds within several astronomical units of Jupiter’s hoop. Thousands of years of gentle gravitational tugs by this hoop have gathered Jupiter’s family. Although Jupiter sometimes destroys comets or ejects them from the solar system, many comets in its family remain, because they were recently launched. A similar but weaker effect is forming Saturn’s family. [See Figure 123.]

7. Composition, Heavy Hydrogen. Comet chemistry was determined by the content of the subterranean water and what the jetting water carried up. Trace amounts of organic compounds, including methane and ethane, are found in comets, because this water contained pulverized vegetation from preflood forests, and bacteria and other traces of life within hundreds of miles of the globe-encircling rupture. Comets are rich in heavy hydrogen, because water in the subterranean chambers never mixed with other water in the solar system. Our oceans have half the concentration of heavy hydrogen as is in comets. So, if the subterranean chambers held half the water in today’s oceans (as assumed on page 107), then almost all heavy hydrogen came from the subterranean chambers.


PREDICTION 25: Excess heavy hydrogen will be found in salty water pockets five or more miles below the Earth’s surface.



PREDICTION 26: Spacecraft landing on a comet will find that comets, and therefore bodies bombarded by comets, such as Mars, contain loess (see page 179), traces of vegetation and bacteria, and about twice the salt concentration of our oceans.


8. Small Comets. Muddy droplets launched with the slowest velocities could not move far from Earth. So their smaller spheres of influence produced small comets. The orbits of small comets about the Sun tend to intersect Earth’s orbit more in early November than mid-January. Because small comets have been falling on Earth for only about 5,000 years, little of our oceans’ water came from them—or from any comets. Few small comets can reach Mars.

9. Recent Meteor Streams, Crater Ages. Disintegrating comets produce meteor streams. If meteor streams were older than 10,000 years, like-sized particles would have similar orbits. [See “Poynting-Robertson Effect” on page 36.] Because this is not seen, meteor streams and comets must be younger than 10,000 years. Only the hydroplate theory claims comets began recently. Impact craters on Earth are also young.

10. Other/Enough Water. Did the subterranean chamber have enough water to supply all the comets the solar system ever had?

Consider these facts. First, the oceans contain 1.43 x 109 cubic kilometers of water. Also, Marsden and Williams’ Catalogue of Cometary Orbits (1996 edition) lists 124 periodic comets—comets observed on at least two different passages into the inner solar system. (Halley’s comet, for example, has been observed on 30 consecutive orbits dating back to 239 B.C.) In recorded history, 790 other comets have been observed with enough detail to calculate orbits. So we know of 914 comets. (Small comets, while numerous, have only about 1% of the mass of all comets combined, so will not be considered here.)

Some comets escaped from the solar system—either directly at launch, or later when perturbed by a planet’s gravity. Other comets have never been counted, because they never came close enough to Earth in modern times to be seen, or because they collided with the Sun or a planet. So, let’s presume 50,000 comets were launched.

The average radius of a comet nucleus is probably about 2.5 kilometers. Comet densities are about 0.2 gram per cubic centimeter,83 similar to a loaf of bread. About 85% of a comet’s mass is water. Finally, let’s assume the subterranean chamber contained half of the water now in the oceans. If these estimates are correct, less than one-thousandth of the subterranean water was expelled as comets.

With such a small fraction of the available water required, comets could have easily come from Earth.

11. Other/Death and Disaster. Comets, launched at the onset of the flood, are being steadily removed from the solar system. During the centuries after the flood, comets would have been seen much more frequently than today. Some must have collided with Earth, just as Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided with Jupiter in 1994. People living during those centuries would have seen many comets grow in size and brightness in the night sky over several weeks. Some of those unforgettable sights would have been followed by impacts on Earth, daytime skies darkened with water vapor dumped by comets, and dramatic stories of localized destruction. Perhaps, the founders of different cultures learned from their ancestors that comets were first observed immediately after the flood, so comets became firmly associated with death and disaster—thus the word disaster: dis (evil) + aster (star).
Anonymous Coward
12/08/2005 10:12 AM
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Re: Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust
To summarize.

During the great flood the original crust split open, water was ejected beyond the atomosphere carrying silt and granite chunks which formed dirty snowballs: asteroids, comets and meteorioids.
Anonymous Coward
12/08/2005 10:12 AM
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Re: Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust
bump
Anonymous Coward
12/08/2005 10:12 AM
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Re: Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust
lmao
Anonymous Coward
12/08/2005 10:12 AM
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Re: Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust
My sentiments exactly. It´s good being able to post this stuff here and foul up the official line.
Anonymous Coward
12/08/2005 10:12 AM
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Re: Celestial Bodies Were Once Part of the Earth´s Crust
this is an interesting read





GLP